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I want to check if a given extrinsic is executed successfully or not from a light client inside the enclave (aka Intel SGX). I am importing new blocks, iterating over the extrinsics I am interested in, and taking actions based on that.
Extrinsics that fail are also included in that list, so what's the Substrate's equivalent of receipts in Ethereum?
Specifically, how to verify the events at a different point in time as we do in Ethereum
Practically speaking, events are what you are looking for. It is up to the pallet implementation to define and emit these in a way that is useful for end consumers, like for use case.
If there is information missing in events that you're needing from a pallet, best to raise an issue to get specific about requirements to get those events baked in.
trie_root and extrinsic_root in substrate header but no receipt_root which used as proof of event or logs as you mentioned. But we you can extend digest_item in header to add some proof which can be verified later